Petcial Logo
--
Bookings

Pheromone Therapy: A Scientific Approach to Animal Well-being

DVM NGUYEN THI HONG TUOI|1/22/2025|5 min read
Blog Image

Pheromones are a natural form of therapy based on the chemical signals used by animals in communication, and for which there are evidence based data to document their efficacy in a variety of anxiety based disorders in dogs and cats. Pheromones have the advantage that they do not require oral administration. For both dogs and cats they are formulated to be sprayed on to specific sites or diffused into the air in the pet’s environment. Pheromones are generally species specific and, since they are not taken internally (but largely trigger external receptors), they have no known contraindications. Adverse reactions appear rare and relate to the presentation of mixed messages to the animal that may lead to confusion.

 In cats, a number of pheromones are released during facial marking: 

• The F3 fraction of the feline facial pheromone is deposited by the cat throughout its environment by facial rubbing to mark out boundaries and passageways. It is suggested that this pheromone provides emotional stability, perhaps by helping to distinguish known objects from unknown. The absence of the pheromone likely creates an increase in anxiety 

• The F4 fraction of the feline facial pheromone is used for allomarking, which may be observed in cats that live together or between a cat and a dog or cat and human that are well socialized. By applying the F4 fraction to an unfamiliar animal or person, the probability of nonaggressive contact is increased (Pageat and Gaultier, 2003).

Action 

Pheromones are chemical substances used for communication between individuals within a species. They are perceived by the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which is part of the accessory olfactory tract. Pheromones bind to pheromone binding proteins (PBP) that are specific for that pheromone. This allows activation of specific receptors that stimulate structures within the limbic system that alter the emotional state of the pet, or activate physiological effects such as the release of hormones. Since receptors are generally only found in the species that produces the pheromone, they are species specific in their actions. In many species of animals, including cats, the flehmen (gape) response enhances the perception of sexual pheromones by opening the incisive ducts and aspirating the pheromones into the VNO. In dogs, tonguing (i.e. flicking of the tongue against the incisive papilla) probably aids in the perception of pheromones (Pageat and Gaultier, 2003). 

Several classes of pheromone have been described:

 • Releasers induce immediate modification to the physiology of the receiver, such as the release of a hormone. Sexual pheromones are releasers. With releasers, the results appear more or less immediately and additional behaviour therapy may not be necessary once the response has become established in the given context 

• Primers induce modification of an emotional state. Primers such as feline facial pheromone and dog appeasing pheromone are used as an adjunct to other forms of behaviour therapy and environmental modification

General indications

Pheromones are useful for reducing a wide range of fear and anxiety induced behaviours in cats, and their trade names have become synonymous with their formulation.

 • Feliway® (CEVA Sante Animale, Libourne, France) is a synthetic version of the F3 fraction of the feline facial pheromone, which may be effective in the control of stress, anxiety, urine marking and vertical scratching, as well as when introducing cats to situations that might evoke fear or anxiety such as a new home, veterinary hospital or car ride. It might be particularly useful in improving appetite, social interactions and play, when these have been inhibited by fear or anxiety. It may also be a useful adjunct for any disease process in which stress and anxiety might be a contributing factor, such as interstitial cystitis. 

At Petcial Hotel, we use Feliway Diffuser

Choice of delivery system

Feline facial pheromone: Feliway® (the F3 fraction) is available as a spray that can be used on specific spots where the cat might be marking (i.e. urine or scratching) or on blankets or into carriers or crates to reduce anxiety associated with crating, car travel or unfamiliar environments (e.g. veterinary clinics). For urine marking and scratching, each marked site as well as prominent objects that the cat might mark should be sprayed daily for at least 30 days. For multi cat households the spray should be used twice daily for 45 days. 

A plugin diffuser is also available, which delivers the pheromone throughout the environment. The diffuser can be used for urine marking in multicat households and to help to reduce fear and anxiety associated with other pets, changes in the household or moving to a new home. 

Felifriend® (the F4 fraction) is available as a spray that, when applied to the hands prior to handling a cat, may increase familiarization and decrease aggression to a new person. Although not specifically labelled for this use, it may also help to reduce fear and aggression toward other pets when applied to a cloth and then rubbed on the cat’s head or flanks. Anxiety reduction may be further complemented by the use of Feliway® in the environment. The success of both F3 and F4 pheromone treatment can be  assessed by an increase in facial marking throughout the environment, including previously marked areas (in the case of F3), and in the marking of people or animals that are unfamiliar or with whom a cat has previously shown avoidance or aggression.

Efficacy of sprays and diffusers: When using the spray on a blanket or crate, it should be applied about 10–15 minutes in advance and repeated if needed up to every 1–2 hours. Diffusers deliver pheromones to 50–70 m2 (about 650 square feet) for about 4 weeks. At least one diffuser should be used per floor or separate airspace, and efficacy may be compromised where air conditioning is fitted. While peak pheromone levels should be reached in the environment in about 24 hours, it may take up to 30 days or longer to assess the full effect of the pheromone and behaviour therapy combination.

Contraindications, side effects and adverse events 

Since the pheromone is a natural compound that targets only the specific species external chemical receptors for which it has been produced, there is no toxicity risk, nor contraindications and no effects on other species. They are safe for sick or aged pets and can be used safely in combination or with any drugs, including psychotropic agents. The collar loses efficacy when wet and the sprays should be tested on a small area before using on fabrics, walls or furniture, in case of a mark being left.

References and further reading

  1. Horwitz, D. F., & Mills, D. S. (Eds.). (2009). BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine (2nd ed.). British Small Animal Veterinary Association.
  2.  Aronson L (1999) Animal behavior case of the month: extreme fear in a dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 215, 22–24 
  3. Beata C, BeaumontGraff E, Coll V, Cordel J, Marion M, Massal N, Marlois N and Tauzin J (2007) Effect of alphacasozepine (Zylkene) on anxiety in cats. Journal of Veterinary Behaviour: Clinical Applications and Research 2 (2), 40–46 
  4. Bonnafous L, Lafont C, Gaultier E et al. (2005) Interest in the use of a new galenic form of the feline allomarking pheromone (F4) analog Felifriend during medical examination. In: Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine, ed. D Mills et al., pp. 119–122. Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, Indiana 
  5. Brown SA, CrowellDavis S, Malcolm T and Edwards P (1987) Naloxone responsive compulsive tail chasing in a dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 190, 884–886 Calves S (2000) Pharm profile: selegiline. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 22, 204–205, 214 
  6. Center SA, Elston TH, Rowland PH et al. (1996) Fulminant hepatic failure associated with oral administration of diazepam in 11 cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209, 618–625 
  7. Ciribassi J, Luescher A, Pasloske KS et al. (2003) Comparative bioavailability of fluoxetine after transdermal and oral administration to healthy cats. American Journal of Veterinary Research 64, 994 998 
  8. Coleman ES (1999) Canine narcolepsy and the role of the nervous system. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 21, 641–650 
  9. Cooper L and Hart BL (1992) Comparison of diazepam with progestin for effectiveness in suppression of urine spraying behavior in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 200, 797–801 
  10. CrowellDavis S and Imirijami M (2008) Pheromones: recent advances and clinical cases. North American Veterinary Conference Proceedings, p.141 
  11. CrowellDavis SL and Murrray T (2006) Veterinary Psychopharmacology. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa CrowellDavis SL, Seibert LM, Sung W et al. (2003) Use of clomipramine, alprazolam and behavior modification for treatment of storm phobia in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 222, 744–748
  12.  Dehasse J (1997) Feline urine spraying. Applied Animal Behavior Science 52, 365–371 
  13. DeNapoli JA, Dodman NH, Shuster L, Rand WM and Gross KL (2000) Effect of dietary protein and tryptophan supplementation on dominance aggression, territorial aggression, and hyperactivity in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 217, 504–508 
  14. Denenberg S and Landsberg GM (2008) Effects of dog appeasing pheromones on anxiety and fear in puppies during training and on long term socialization. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 233, 1874–1882 
  15. Dodman NH (1998) Pharmacologic treatment of aggression in veterinary patients. In: Psychopharmacology of Animal Behavior Disorders, ed. NH Dodman and L Shuster, pp.17–30. 
  16. Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts Dodman NH, Donnelly R, Shuster L et al. (1996) Use of fluoxetine to treat dominance aggression in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209, 1585–1587 
  17. Dodman NH, Shuster L, White SD et al. (1988) Use of narcotic antagonists to modify stereotypic self licking, self chewing, and scratching behavior in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 193, 815–819 
  18. Estellès MG and Mills DS (2006) Signs of travel related problems in dogs and their response to treatment with dog appeasing pheromone. Veterinary Record 159, 140–148 
  19. Fillon F (1999) Efficacy of Felifriend® in improving the cat’s tolerance to clinical examinations during a veterinary consultation. Proceedings, 24th World Small Animal Veterinary Congress. 
  20. WSAVA, Lyon Forrester SD, Brown SA, Lees GE and Hartsfield SM (1990) Disposition of clorazepate in dogs after single and multiple dose oral administration. American Journal of Veterinary Research 51, 2001 2005 
  21. Frank D, Erb HN and Houpt KA (1999) Urine spraying in cats: presence of concurrent disease and effects of pheromone treatment. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 61, 263–272 
  22. Gaultier E, Bonnafous L, Bougrat L et al. (2005) Comparison of the efficacy of a synthetic dog appeasing pheromone with clomipramine for the treatment of separation related disorders in dogs. Veterinary Record 156, 533–538 
  23. Gaultier E, Bonnafous L, VienetLegue D et al. (2008) Efficacy of dog appeasing pheromone in reducing stress associated with social isolation in newly adopted puppies. Veterinary Record 163, 73–80 
  24. Gaultier E, Bonnafous L, VienetLegue D et al. (2009) Efficacy of dog appeasing pheromone in reducing behaviours associated with fear of unfamiliar people and new surroundings in newly adopted puppies. Veterinary Record 164, 708–714 
  25. Gaultier E, Pageat P and Tessier Y (1998) Effect of a feline appeasing pheromone analogue on manifestations of stress in cats during transport. In: Proceedings of the 32nd Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, ClermontFerrand, p. 198 
  26. Gaultier E and Pageat P (2003) Effects of a synthetic dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) on behaviour problems during transport. In: Proceedings, 4th International Behavior Meeting, Caloundra, Australia, pp. 33–35 
  27. Graham D, Mills DS and Bailey G (2007) Evaluation of the effectiveness of synthetic DAP (Dog Appeasing Pheromone) in reducing levels of arousal and improving learning in puppy classes. Proceedings, CABTSG Study Day 
  28. Griffith CA, Steigerwald ES and Buffington CA (2000) Effects of a synthetic facial pheromone on behavior of cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 217, 1154–1156 
  29. Gruen ME and Sherman BL (2008) Use of Trazadone as an adjunctive treatment for canine anxiety disorders: 56 cases. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 223, 1902–1907 
  30. GunnMoore DA and Cameron ME (2004) A pilot study using synthetic feline facial pheromone for the management of feline idiopathic cystitis. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 6, 133–138 
  31. Hart BL (1980) Objectionable urine spraying and urine marking in the cat: evaluation of progestin treatment in gonadectomized males and females. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 177, 529–533 
  32. Hart BL, Cliff KD, Tynes VV and Bergman L (2005) Control of urine marking by use of longterm treatment with fluoxetine or clomipramine in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226, 378 382 
  33. Hart BL, Eckstein RA, Powell KL and Dodman NH (1993) Effectiveness of buspirone on urine spraying and inappropriate urination in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 203, 254–258 
  34. Hartmann L (1995) Cats as possible obsessivecompulsive disorder and medication models. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 8 
  35. Harvey MJA, Cauvin A, Dale M, Lindley S and Ballabio R (1997) Effect and mechanisms of the anti prolactin drug cabergoline on pseudopregnancy in the bitch. Journal of Small Animal Practice 38, 336–339 
  36. Hewson CJ, Luescher AU, Parent JM et al. (1998) Efficacy of clomipramine in the treatment of canine compulsive disorder: a randomized, placebo controlled, double blind clinical trial. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 213, 1760–1766 
  37. Holland CT (1988) Successful long term treatment of a dog with psychomotor seizures with carbamezepine. Australian Veterinary Journal 65, 389–392 
  38. Horwitz DF and Neilson JC (2007) Blackwell’s Five Minute Veterinary Consult Clinical Companion: Canine and Feline Behavior. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa Houpt KA (1991) House soiling: treatment of a common feline problem. Veterinary Medicine 86, 1000–1006 
  39. Hughes D, Moreau RE Overall KL et al. (1996) Acute hepatic necrosis and liver failure associated with benzodiazepine therapy in six cats, 1986–1995. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care 6, 13–20 
  40. Kakuma Y and Bradshaw JWS (2001) Effects of a feline facial pheromone analogue on stress in shelter cats. Proceedings, 3rd International Congress on Veterinary Behavioral Medicine, pp. 218–220 
  41. Karel R (1994) Fluoxetine use in dogs provides animal model for human mental disorders. Psychiatric News 29, 12 
  42. Kenny DE (1994) Use of naltrexone for the treatment of psychologically induced dermatoses in five zoo animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 1021–1023 
  43. King JN, Simpson BS, Overall KL et al. (2000) Treatment of separation anxiety in dogs with clomipramine: results from a prospective, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, parallel group multicenter clinical trial. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67, 255–275 
  44. King JN, Steffan J, Heath SE et al. (2004) Determination of the dosage of clomipramine for the treatment of urine spraying in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 225, 881–887 
  45. Kroll T and Houpt KA (2001) A comparison of cyproheptadine and clomipramine for the treatment of spraying cats. Proceedings, 3rd International Congress on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, pp. 184–185 
  46. Landsberg G (2004) A behaviorist’s approach to compulsive disorders. Proceedings, ACVIM Forum, Minneapolis Landsberg G, Hunthausen W and Ackerman L (1997) Handbook of Behaviour Problems of the Dog and Cat. 
  47. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford Landsberg G, Hunthausen W and Ackerman L (2003) Handbook of Behaviour Problems of the Dog and Cat, 2nd edn. 
  48. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia Landsberg G and Wilson AL (2005) Effects of clomipramine on cats presented for urine marking. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 41, 3–11 
  49. Landsberg GL (2006) Therapeutic options for cognitive decline in senior pets. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 42, 407 413 
  50. Larson ET and Summers CH (2001) Serotonin reverses dominant social status. Behavioural Brain Research 121, 95–102 
  51. Levine ED, Ramos D and Mills DS (2007) A prospective study of two self help CD based desensitization and counterconditioning programmes with the use of Dog Appeasing Pheromone for the treatment of firework fears in dogs (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105, 311–319 
  52. Levy JK (1994) Letters to the editor: The author responds (original letter entitled Adverse reaction to diazepam in cats) Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 966 
  53. Levy JK, Cullen JM, Bunch SE et al. (1994) Adverse reaction to diazepam in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 156–157 
  54. Löscher W and Frey HH (1981) Pharmacokinetics of diazepam in the dog. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 254, 180–195 
  55. Luescher UA (1998) Pharmacologic treatment of compulsive disorder. In: Psychopharmacology of Animal Behavior Disorders, ed. NH Dodman and L Shuster, pp. 203–221. 
  56. Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts Marder AR (1991) Psychotropic drugs and behavioral therapy. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 21, 329–342 
  57. Mealey KL, Peck KE, Bennett BS et al. (2004) Systemic absorption of amitriptyline and buspirone after oral and transdermal administration to healthy cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 18, 43–46 
  58. Melman SA (1995) Use of Prozac in animals for selected dermatological and behavioural conditions. Veterinary Forum 12, 19–27 
  59. Mills D (2005) Pheromonatherapy: theory and applications. In Practice 27, 248–255 
  60. Mills DS, Estellès MG, Coleshaw PH and Shorthouse C (2003) Retrospective analysis of the treatment of firework fears in dogs. Veterinary Record 153, 561–562 
  61. Mills DS and Mills CB (2001) Evaluation of a novel method for delivering a synthetic analogue of feline facial pheromone to control urine spraying by cats. Veterinary Record 149, 197–199 
  62. Mills DS, Ramos D, Estellès MG and Hargrave C (2006) A triple blind placebo controlled investigation into the assessment of the effect of Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) on anxiety related behaviour of problem dogs in the veterinary clinic. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 98,114–126
  63.  Mills DS and White JC (2000) Long Term follow up of the effect of a pheromone therapy on feline spraying behaviour. Veterinary Record 147, 746–747
  64. MoonFanelli AA and Dodman NH (1998) Description and development of compulsive tail chasing in terriers and response to clomipramine treatment. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212, 1252–1257 
  65. Neilson JC, Eckstein RA and Hart BL (1997) Effects of castration on problem behaviors in male dogs with reference to age and duration of behavior. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 211, 180–182 
  66. NOAH (2001–2002) Compendium of Data Sheets for Veterinary Products 2001–2002. National Office of Animal Health, Enfield Ogata N and Takeuchi Y (2001) Clinical trial of a feline pheromone analogue for feline urine marking. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 63,157–161 
  67. Ogawa N, Asanuma M, Hirnta H et al. (1993) Cholinergic deficits in aged rat brain are corrected with nicergoline. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 16, 103–110 
  68. Osella MC, Bergamasco L and Costa F (2005) Use of a synthetic analogue of a dog appeasing pheromone in sheltered dogs after adoption. In: Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine, ed. D Mills et al., pp. 270–273. 
  69. Purdue University Press, Purdue, Indiana Overall KL (1994) Animal behavior case of the month: use of buspirone to treat spraying associated with intercat aggression. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 694–696 
  70. Overall KL (1997) Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals. Mosby, St Louis, Missouri Overall KL (1999) Intercat aggression: why can’t they all just get along? Veterinary Medicine 94, 688–693 
  71. Pageat P (1998) Pathologie du Comportement du Chien, 2nd edn, p183. 
  72. Editions du Point Vétérinaire, MaisonsAlfort, Paris Pageat P (1999) Experimental evaluation of the efficacy of a synthetic analogue of cat’s facial pheromones (Feliway) in inhibiting urine marking of sexual origin in adult tomcats. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 20 (suppl. 1), 169 
  73. Pageat P and Gaultier E (2003) Current research in canine and feline pheromones. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 33, 187–211 
  74. Pageat P and Tessier Y (1997a) Usefulness of the F3 synthetic pheromone Feliway* in preventing behaviour problems in cats during holidays. Proceedings, 1st International Conference on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, p. 231 
  75. Pageat P and Tessier Y (1997b) Usefulness of the F4 synthetic pheromone for prevention of intraspecific aggression in poorly socialized cats. Proceedings , 1st International Conference on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, pp. 64–72 
  76. Papich MG (2007) Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 2nd edn.
  77.  Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia Penaliggon J (1997) The use of nicergoline in the reversal of behaviour changes due to ageing in dogs: a multi centre clinical field trial. Proceedings, 1st International Conference on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, pp. 37–41 
  78. Plumb DC (2008) Veterinary Drug Handbook, 6th edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa Pryor P (2003) Animal behaviour case of the month. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 223, 1117–1119 
  79. Pryor PA, Hart BL, Cliff KD et al. (2001) Effects of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor on urine spraying behaviour in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219, 1557–1561 
  80. Ramsey I (2008) BSAVA Small Animal Formulary, 6th edn. BSAVA Publications, Gloucester Rapoport JL, Ryland DH and Kriete M (1992) Drug treatment of canine acral lick: an animal model of obsessive compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 517–521 
  81. Reich MR, Ohad DG, Overall KL and Dunham AE (2000) Electrocardiographic assessment of antianxiety medication in dogs and correlation with serum drug concentration. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 216, 1571–1575 
  82. Reisner IR (2003) Diagnosis of canine generalized anxiety disorder and its management with behavioural modification and fluoxetine or paroxetine: a retrospective summary of clinical experience (2001 2003). Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 39, 512 
  83. Robinson DS (1985) Buspirone: long term therapy. Proceedings of anxiety disorders: an international update, Düsseldorf, Germany, pp. 93–100. 
  84. BristolMyers, New York Sawyer LS, MoonFanelli AA and Dodman NH (1999) Psychogenic alopecia in cats: 11 cases (1993–1996). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 214, 71–74 
  85. Schwartz S (1994) Carbamazepine in the control of aggressive behavior in cats. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 30, 515–519 
  86. Schwartz S (2005) Psychoactive Herbs in Veterinary Behavior Medicine. 
  87. Blackwell, Ames, Iowa Seibert L (2003) Antidepressants in behavioral medicine. Western  Veterinary Conference 
  88. Seibert L (2006) Antipsychotics. In: Veterinary Psychopharmacology, ed. SL CrowellDavis and T Murray, pp. 148–165. 
  89. Blackwell, Ames, Iowa ShullSelcer E and Stagg W (1991) Advances in the understanding and treatment of noise phobias. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 21, 353–367 
  90. Sieffge D and Katsuyoshi N (1985) Effects of propentofylline on the micromechanical properties of red blood cells. Drug Development Research 5, 147–155 
  91. Simpson BS (2000) Canine separation anxiety. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 22, 328–339 
  92. Simpson BS, Landsberg GM, Reisner IR et al. (2007) Effects of Reconcile (Fluoxetine) chewable tablets plus behavior management for canine separation anxiety. Veterinary Therapeutics 8, 18–31 
  93. Stein DJ, Shoulberg N, Helton K et al. (1992). The neuroethological approach to obsessive compulsive disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 33, 274–281 
  94. Taylor K and Mills DS (2007) A placebo controlled study to investigate the effect of Dog Appeasing Pheromone and other environmental and management factors on the reports of disturbance and house soiling  during the night in recently adopted puppies (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105, 358–368 
  95. Tod E, Brander D and Wran N (2005) Efficacy of a dog appeasing pheromone in reducing stress and fear related behaviour in shelter dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93, 295–308 
  96. Virga V (2002) Which drug and why: an update on psychopharmacology. Proceedings: Atlantic Coast Veterinary Conference 
  97. Vree TB, Baars AM Hekster YA et al. (1979) Simultaneous determination of diazepam and its metabolites N Desmethyldiazepam, oxy diazepam and oxazepam in plasma and urine of man and dog by means of high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography 162, 605–614 
  98. Walker R, Fisher J and Neville P (1997) The treatment of phobias in the dog. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 52, 275–289 
  99. White JC and Mills D (1997) Efficacy of synthetic feline facial pheromone (F3) analogue (Feliway) for the treatment of chronic nonsexual urine spraying by the domestic cat. Proceedings, 1st International Conference on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, pp. 242 
  100. Wynchank D and Berk M (1998) Fluoxetine treatment of acral lick dermatitis in dogs: a placebocontrolled randomized double blind trial. Depression and Anxiety 8, 21–23